Etudiant : ENNADI MOHAMMED

Filière : LF SMP - Option Energétique

Encadrant : Pr. DIDI SEDDIK ALI

Annèe : 2022

Résumé : Briefly to sum up: There are five principal models of the atom that have been proposed over time, each being related to the understanding of the atom at the time. The models are Dalton's atomic model, Thomson's atomic model, Rutherford's atomic model, Bohr's atomic model, and the quantum atomic model. The theories and discoveries have resulted in a remarkable insight into the fundamental structure of matter: everything in the universe is found to be made from a few basic building blocks called fundamental particles, governed by four fundamental forces. The best understanding of how these particles and three of the forces are related to each other is encapsulated in the Standard Model of particle physics. These particles occur in two basic types called quarks and leptons. Each group consists of six particles, which are related in pairs, or “generations”. the “up quark” and the “down quark” form the first generation, followed by the “charm quark” and “strange quark”, then the “top quark” and “bottom quark”. The six leptons are similarly arranged in three generations – the “electron” and the “electron neutrino”, the “muon” and the “muon neutrino”, and the “tau” and the “tau neutrino”. There are four fundamental forces at work in the universe: the strong force, the weak force, the electromagnetic force, and the gravitational force. Three of the fundamental forces result from the exchange of force-carrier particles, which belong to a broader group called “bosons”. Particles of matter transfer discrete amounts of energy by exchanging bosons with each other. Each fundamental force has its own corresponding boson – the strong force is carried by the “gluon”, the electromagnetic force is carried by the “photon”, and the “W and Z bosons” are responsible for the weak force. Within the well-tested and generally accepted Standard Model, there is a number of experiment methods that use particle colliders at very high energy such as large hadron collider and large electron-positron collider, in order to searching for new particles, and probing at the smallest scales of length to learn about the fundamental nature of elementary particles and the interactions between them. Particle physics plays an important Role in cancer therapy, from detection to treatment. It has a strong impact on medicine: in the application of radioisotopes directly, as well as accelerators. Imaging with radioisotopes, and using hadron therapy such as proton therapy.